Korrigans – the Fairies of Brittany

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The Korrigans were the tiny female fairies of Brittany in north-west France. They were regarded as the smallest of the fabled “little people”. The Korrigans were particularly fond of sacred wells, fountains, rivers and springs where they could be seen combing their long, blond hair.

The fairies of Brittany were said to be only two or three inches (or five to seven centimetres) tall and surprisingly strong for their size. They were described as well proportioned, miniature women with long, flowing blond hair which they combed constantly.

A long white veil was worn around their bodies and tied in the middle. Some versions of fairy women said they could fly in the air on wasp-like wings.

A Korrigan took the shape of an old crone in daylight with red eyes, white hair and deeply wrinkled skin. At night it changed into beautiful, seductive woman.

Men were merely the tiny fairy's playthings as it could make any man fall hopelessly in love with it or destroy him at will. The men who accidentally came across the fairy women in remote woods were punished, sometimes severely. The Korrigans were known to have killed, married or take mortal men by force to the supernatural realm of the Otherworld.

The tiny fairies were fairly friendly towards people. Those who met a Korrigan were advised to be wary as they earned a reputation for being sensitive creatures and easily offended.

The Korrigans were semi-divine beings and so immortal. They possessed numerous supernatural powers as, for example, the ability to make themselves invisible or change their shape at will. Their magical abilities were renowned in local tradition as they could cast evil spells on people as well as foretell the future to those who sought them out.

People were most likely to meet Korrigans in the spring and summer time as they hibernated during the cold weather in winter. The little beings awoke from their deep sleep when the weather was warmer in the spring.

Springs, streams and wells were rumoured to be some of their favourite haunts and where they were often seen combing their long golden hair. Local tradition said the Korrigans guarded wells, fountains, rivers and other places near water which were sacred pagan sites of worship in the distant past.

Historians believe the Korrigans were remnants of an earlier pagan goddess of nature called Korrigan. Korrigan was venerated in Gaul, or modern day France. It is thought the cult of the goddess originated in Brittany and spread to modern day Jersey in the Channel Islands.

The goddess Korrigan was portrayed as a small, translucent deity associated with nature with a special connection to sacred places near water. Sacred shrines found near springs, fountains and wells were thought to be blessed by the goddess.

The Korrigans, or the Corrigans, were said to be the priestesses who attended to the goddess Korrigan and were also associated with areas of water. Some believe they were lost human souls and doomed to wander the earth after suffering a tragic death.

Historians are of the opinion the fairy women were echoes of druidesses from Brittany's pagan past. Their well known wanton and immoral desires were thought to be part of a religious rite that was performed by the priestesses of the cult of the goddess Korrigan.

Mullo - Celtic God of Healing and Mules in Mythology

Mullo - Celtic God of Healing and Mules in Mythology

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Mullo - Mars Mullo - Celtic God of Healing and Mules in Gaul

Mullo was a popular Celtic god of healing and mules in northern and north-western Gaul, or modern-day France. Followers of Mullo's cult associated the god with afflictions of the eye. Archaeological evidence suggests Mullo gained a high status as Mars Mullo in Gaul during the era of the Roman Empire.

Mullo may be translated as "mule", "hill" or "heap". The god was known as a deity of healing and mules including those who tended and worked with mules.

He became known across the Celtic world as Mars Mullo. Mars, the Roman god of war, was joined to the Celtic god Mullo as an important local and tribal deity. The Roman god Mars also changed into a god of healing because of Celtic influences. Mars Mullo was portrayed as a single god in Gaul during the Roman occupation.

Modern historians believe Mars Mullo was possibly the most widely venerated Romanised Celtic god in Amorica, or modern-day Brittany and eastern Normandy..

It has also been pointed out that a god of mules would not have been considered unusual as they were important as pack animals. Mules were held in high esteem because of their strength, endurance, sturdy nature and longevity.

The cult of Mars Mullo was very popular among the Celtic tribes in Amorica in northern and north-western Gaul. Armorica may be translated as "near the sea" because it was found on the coastal peninsula of modern-day Brittany and eastern Normandy in France.

Amorica was the last area in Gaul to fall to Julius Caesar and was never fully Romanised. The Redones, the Veneti and other Celtic tribes in the region preferred to keep their native customs and culture during the Roman occupation.

The Redones was the tribe most closely associated with Mars Mullo and venerated him as an important tribal god. They lived on eastern coasts of Brittany, nearest the English Channel. The Roman army respected them as they earned a reputation for being exceptionally skilled horsemen.

The Redones were one of the earliest tribes in the Gaul to mint their own coins. Their long association with horses was celebrated on coins that showed the body of a man with the head of a horse. The veneration of a mule god followed in the same tradition as mules are the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse.

The tribe's ancient capital was Condate Riedonum and now known as the city of Rennes in Brittany. Five inscriptions dedicated to Mars Mullo were unearthed in Rennes dating back to the second century. The inscriptions were honorary statue inscriptions and mentioned important men of the city including Titus Flavius Postuminus.

The Romans also considered Mars Mullo to be an important Celtic god. Evidence has been found of a flamen, or an official Roman priest, called Titus Flavius Postuminus who was appointed the official priest of Mullo's cult. The flamen devoted his time and duties to the worship of just one deity.

The presence of the flamen suggests the temple of Mars Mullo was the official center of the god's cult in the region and Mars Mullo was the official god and protector of Rennes. Rennes became a thriving city during the Roman occupation. Mullo's cult would have been the responsibility of the city's wealthier citizens in Rennes and other areas of Gaul. For example, shrines were built in Gaul to Mullo as a regional god and were the responsibility of public officials.

The high status of Mars Mullo was also confirmed when archaeologists found two inscriptions in Rennes linking the god to the Imperial Cult of the Roman Emperors.

Some historians believe Mars Mullo may also have been the official god of Nantes in Brittany as an inscription to the god was found and again linked to the Imperial Cult.

The inscription reads "To the Augustus, to Mars Mullo, Agedovirus, son of Moricus, raised a (or the) statue (of the god) with his temple and all his ornaments, in his name and in the name of his daughter Toutilla. He has fulfilled his wish with good heart and with good reason". It seems an aristocrat from a Romanised family in Gaul was responsible for the dedication to Mars Mullo in Nantes.

The native tribe known as the Namnetes venerated Mars Mullo in and around the area known today as Nantes. The Namnetes were neighbours of the Redones.

Important circular temples were also dedicated to Mars Mullo on the top of a hill in Provenchères and in Craon in the Mayenne in the north-west of France.

Pilgrims visited a healing shrine to Mars Mullo at Allonnes in the hope the god would cure them. A number of offerings were made to Mars Mullo in the sanctuary in the form of coins and sculptures of afflicted limbs, with diseases of the eye being most prominent.

The large temple complex dedicated to the cult of Mars Mullo in Allonnes was built as new a temple during the era of the Roman Empire. It was most likely built over an ancient pagan shrine. (Le Mans).

One of the inscriptions was dedicated to Mars Mullo by a public slave called Crescens. The inscription said, "To Auguste and Mars Mullo Crescens, public slave (has high this monument) of his good will and with good reason". Mars Mullo was seemed to be a major Celtic god as he was linked to the Imperial cult at Rennes, Allonnes and other areas in Gaul because the name of Emperor Augustus was mentioned.

The evidence suggested Mullo was a major Celtic god in Brittany and Normandy both before and after the Roman occupation of Gaul, or modern-day France. The god's importance was recognised by the Romans when Mullo became linked with Mars, one of the main Roman gods. Mars Mullo's high status in Gaul was confirmed as he was linked with the official Imperial Cult of Rome.

Fall of the Druids in Britain - the Island of Anglesey in Wales - Part 3

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Aulus Plautius was recalled to Rome by the Emperor Claudius in AD 47, possibly because of his failure to capture Caractacus, the rebel leader. The new governor Publius Ostorius Scapula made a concerted effort to conquer the native tribes who were resisting the occupation in the north and west. The defiance of the tribes in Wales threatened the stability of the whole Roman province.

Caractacus and his warriors escaped to Wales following the capture of Camulodunum (or Colchester) in AD 43. The powerful, warlike tribe of the Silures in south Wales adopted Caractacus as their leader. The Deceangli and the Ordovices in north Wales joined his rallying calls to fight the Roman oppressors. Caractacus became known as the Caradog among his supporters and the Druids proclaimed him as a hero.

Ostorius began his term in office by defending Roman territory near Wales which had been attacked by Caractacus and his army. The guerrilla tactics used by the rebels against the Romans were so successful that it slowed the pace of the occupation by Ostorius and succeeding Roman governors for more than a decade.

The native tribes of Gaul, Britain and the Rhineland learned ambushes, surprise attacks, and fighting in rough, hostile terrain which they knew well were the most effective ways of resisting the Romans. Open battles usually ended in defeat. The rough, mountainous terrain of Wales provided the rebels with excellent cover from which to successfully launch raids.

It is certain Caractacus and his followers met the Druids during his time in Wales. Anglesey, which was known as the island of Mona by the Romans, is a small island off the coast of north Wales and was the home of the Druidism throughout the Iron Age. It was also a place of where the Celtic priests welcomed fugitives from distant tribes who had escaped the harshness of Roman rule. Anti-Roman sentiment was spread from Anglesey to the native tribes throughout Britain. Druids were forbidden from taking part in warfare according to Julius Caesar but they could encourage it.

A close relationship existed between the Druids, the tribal chieftains and their warriors because of their teachings the human soul was immortal and could not be destroyed.

The Celts that believed the soul passed from the mortal world upon death to the Otherworld, or the world of the dead. A birth in the mortal world similarly caused a death in the Otherworld and a soul returned to the mortal world.

Julius Caesar noted the Celts belief in the immortal soul was one of the reasons their warriors were fearless in battle. Personal belongings were normally buried during the funeral of a warrior so the time he spent the after-life was pleasant.

The first signs of hostility came in AD 49 when the Roman general attacked and devastated the lands of the Deceangli in north Wales as part of a military offensive to bring the north and west of Britain under Roman control. The campaign was delayed when Ostorius received news of an uprising of the client kingdoms of the Iceni, the Brigantes and other native tribes. He rushed to East Anglia to quell the rebellion.

The Roman writer Tacitus said there had been unrest because Ostorius had taken the unusual and unpopular step of disarming the tribes south and east of the rivers Trent and Severn. The decision was based a suspicion that anti-Roman sentiment was growing among the Britons encouraged by the Druids and the resistance in Wales. The measure was aimed at preventing rebellion among the native people in Roman controlled territory while an ongoing offensive was taking place against Caractacus and his army in Wales.

Under Roman law no person could carry arms except for officers and soldiers. Hunting swords and knives were exempt. However bearing arms was an essential part of a warrior's lifestyle and was against Celtic custom. The introduction of martial law demonstrated the Roman's distrust of the native population and ignorance of their ways and customs.

Weapons were reluctantly handed over in an act of submission by the tribes. Search parties were sent to farms and villages to check for hidden weapons. Historians believe the Romans used the law to deliberately instill fear among the local population. Protests were dealt with harshly by Roman soldiers with beatings of individuals and families. Anti-Roman factions within the Iceni, Brigantes and other tribes encouraged their kinsmen to rebel.

The short-lived uprising was crushed quickly by the Romans. Some of the leaders were executed while others were pardoned according to Tacitus. The measures taken by the Ostorius to prevent rebellion had actually caused an anti-Roman reaction. The revolt of the Iceni surprised the Romans.

Ostorius and his legions defeated Caratacus and his forces during a decisive battle in Wales in AD 51. Caratacus was captured some months later when Queen Cartimandua of the Brigantes handed the rebel leader over to Roman authorities.

The Silures continued fighting after their leader was taken prisoner and Ostorius died in AD 52 from illness while fighting them in south-Wales. The fourth Roman governor Quintus Veranius Nepos defeated the Silures in AD 58 and the region was pacified with the building of forts and roads.

Gaius Suetonius Paulinus became governor of Britain in AD 58 following the death of Quintus Veranius. The progress of the invasion in Wales had been slow because the Welsh tribes were successful in keeping the Roman at bay. The Island of Anglesey was targeted by Paulinus because it became a symbol of national and religious resistance to the Roman occupation. The Druids welcomed the rebels and the island acted as a haven for those fleeing Roman rule. Further rebellions threatened the expansion of the Empire.

Paulinus reasoned an attack on Druids last stronghold on the island of Anglesey in Wales was necessary. It would help crush the rebellion in the north, reduce their numbers and demoralise the remaining Celtic priests. Druidism would be pushed underground and eventually die out in the outermost areas.

The Druids on Anglesey also controlled trade with neighbouring Ireland and the gold merchants brought with them from across the Celtic sea. Removing the Druids by force would further the Roman's ambition of controlling the mineral wealth of the province of Britannia.

Paulinus and his legions arrived on the shores of Anglesey in AD 60. The Romans witnessed the frightening spectacle of thousands of tribesmen gathered on the shore beating their shields and shouting. A nearby circle of Druids lifted their hands to heaven, praying to their gods for victory and cursed the Romans with dark magic and spells.

Tacitus noted there were women were "flitting between the ranks. In the style of Furies, in robes of deathly black and with dishevelled hair, they brandished their torches". Some believe the "women" may have been the wives, mothers and sisters of the warriors. Others think they were Celtic priestesses, or Druidesses, belonging to the cult of a god, perhaps even the Celtic sun god Mabon of Wales.

Paulinus rode among his shocked soldiers, encouraging them to wage war on the enemy. The Romans rallied and proceeded to slaughter every man, woman and child on the battlefield. The surviving Druids and their followers were thrown into their sacred groves among oak trees and burned alive. Tacitus said Paulinus decided "the next step was to install a garrison among the conquered population, and to demolish the groves consecrated to their savage cults".

Historians agree that Druidism in Britain was dealt a fatal blow following the attack by the Romans on their stronghold on the island of Anglesey. Most of the surviving members escaped to Ireland. The remainder seem to have sought refuge among the tribes in Scotland who were known to be anti-Roman.

The accounts of the time indicate there were Druids were living among the native tribes in the client kingdoms in England. For example, sacrifices that were made during the revolt of Boudicca and the Iceni in AD 60/61 could only have been performed by Druids.

News reached Paulinus a rebellion was underway in East Anglia after the successful attack on Anglesey. He and his legions rushed from Wales to confront the legendary Queen Boudicca and her army in southern England.

The Fall of the Druids in Roman Britain - the Claudian Invasion -  Part 2

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Julius Caesar briefly invaded Britain in 55 BC using the famous phrase "Veni, Vidi, Vici" or "I came, I saw, I conquered" to describe his victory. Strabo explained, "although the Romans could have held Britain, they scorned to do so, because they saw that there was nothing at all to fear from the Britons (for they are not strong enough to cross over and attack us)".

The Catuvellauni were among the tribes in southern Britain who formed alliances with Caesar during and after the invasion. The new opportunities for trade with Rome were also exploited. For the next one hundred years, ships laden with goods sailed across the English Channel to the coasts of the Roman province of Gaul.

Diodorus of Sicily described how "tin is brought in large quantities also from the island of Britain to the opposite Gaul, where it is taken by merchants on horses through the interior of Celtica both...to the city of Narbo, as it is called. This city is a colony of the Romans, and because of its convenient situation it possesses the finest market to be found in those regions".

Gold, silver, iron and other metals were exported. Grain and slaves were considered to be essential commodities by the Romans. According to Pliny hunting dogs from Britain, which were possibly Irish Wolf Hounds. were famous throughout the Roman world.

Olive oil, glass, jewellery, fine pottery and other Roman luxury goods also became fashionable. Imported Roman wine was particularly popular even among those who were anti-Roman.

Emperor Claudius ordered the invasion in the third year of his reign, in AD 43. An Emperor could secure his position and authority by adding a new province to the Empire after a military triumph. Britain's mineral wealth and other resources together with its importance as a source of grain for the Roman army also made the island an attractive proposition.

The Roman general Aulus Plautius was appointed as the new governor of Britain. He led a large invasion force across the English Channel and landed unopposed by the Celtic tribes at the mouth of the River Thames. The Roman legions then marched through southern England with little resistance. The Atrebate (Hampshire and Sussex) were among the tribes who were friendly towards Rome (Celtic tribes in Britain (BBC)).

Military forts and camps were established to ensure the continued loyalty of the native tribes. For example, Noviomagus Reginorum (modern-day Chichester) was built as a Roman fort shortly after the invasion and then became a Romano-British settlement when the legions withdrew.

Caractacus was the king of the Catuvellauni and the leader of the largest tribe in southern Britain. He resisted the invading forces as but was defeated at the River Medway. The king fled to his stronghold of Camulodunum (or modern day Colchester) which was then besieged by the Romans.

Emperor Claudius travelled to Camulodunum at the invitation of Aulus Plautius and led the final assault while riding on the back of an elephant. Caractacus fled the city in a chariot and rallied his forces in the west. The formal surrender of the eleven leaders of the Celtic tribes was accepted by Claudius before returning to Rome.

The tribal leaders in Britain were friendly or surrendered quickly to the Romans. The Celtic tribes in Britain, Gaul and the rest of Continental Europe were rarely successful in battle against a well-disciplined Roman army. Surrendering was a wise choice as they could retain their positions as tribal leaders and so keep their lands as allies of Rome. The punishment for resisting could be severe.

Caractacus was captured by the Roman governor Ostorious in AD 51 after being betrayed by Queen Cartimandua of the Brigantes, a Roman ally. The lands of Catuvellauni were confiscated and pacified and military bases were established. Caractacus and his family were taken in chains to Rome and displayed in a triumphal celebration of the conquest of Britain. Camulodunum, which was the capital of the Catuvellauni, became the first colonia or military town in Britain in AD 49.

The Celtic nobles belonged to the warrior class and were elected as leaders by their tribe. They proved their worthiness by victory in battle which in turn ensured the freedom and gratitude of their people. Their status was diminished when confronted with a seemingly unstoppable Roman invasion.

The Romans offered a means of prolonging their standing in society by bribing them with wealth and power as an ally. Adopting a Latin name, carrying out public works such as building temples or owning a villa in the country allowed them the opportunity to progress in the Roman world as they could be elected as priests or local officials. Demonstrations of their loyalty could eventually be rewarded with the prestige of becoming a Roman citizen.

For example, Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus became a client king in southern Britain under Emperor Claudius. His Roman name indicates he was given Roman citizenship. The sumptuous Roman style palace he built at Fishbourne in AD 65 was a display of the wealth and power he amassed in a short time after the invasion. He is also mentioned in the dedication stone of the temple built to the Roman deities Neptune and Minerva in Chichester.

Temples were introduced in Gaul and the Rhineland during the reign of Augustus and normally built over the sacred shrines of local cults. Worshipper made offerings and prayers to Celtic gods and goddesses who were paired with Roman deities.

A statue of a previously unknown British Celtic goddess was found in Hertfordshire in 2003. It is thought "Senua was probably an older Celtic goddess, worshipped at a spring on the site, who was then adopted and Romanised - twinned with their goddess Minerva - by the invaders. There is a direct parallel at Bath, where the Romans seamlessly absorbed the Celtic god Sulis, and a much older shrine, into their religion" (Guardian).

The Romans preferred a wealthy and loyal, secular priesthood who worshipped a combined Roman and Celtic religion in temples. The practice of worshipping Celtic deities in the open was abandoned and the Druids were eventually outlawed by the Romans. Temples were usually built on ancient sacred Celtic shrines and were of a distinct Romano-Celtic type rather than in classical Latin style ( Roman Britain).

Emperor Augustus (27 BC to AD14) banned Roman citizens from taking part in Druidic rituals in Gaul meaning that Druids could not become Roman citizens. Emperor Tiberius (AD 14 to AD 37) took further measures by outlawing Druidism throughout the Roman Empire. Writers of the time rarely mentioned Druids and human sacrifices among the Celtic tribes once they were assimilated into the Roman Empire.

Many historians believe the actions of Caesar and the succeeding Emperors were a genuine wish to remove barbaric practices from the Celtic religion and in so doing civilise and eventually assimilate the numerous Celtic tribes in Gaul, the Rhineland and Britain.

Historians believe the numerous local cults that venerated the deities in the Celtic religion were tolerated by Roman Emperors because they were important in the daily lives of the native tribes. However, the Emperors demanded the Celtic tribes demonstrate their loyalty to Rome in return for their tolerance.

A classical style temple was built between AD 49 and AD 60 and dedicated to Emperor Claudius in Camulodunum (modern day Colchester). Tacitus wrote "Seneca jibes that, instead of aspiring to divinity, Claudius should be content with the worship of barbarians. 'Is it not enough that he has a temple in Britain, that savages worship him and pray to him as a god'".

Tacitus and other Roman writers including Julius Caesar also believed many of the Celtic deities were more or less similar to Roman gods and goddesses. Caesar referred to the Celtic gods and goddesses by their Roman names so his readers could understand their characteristics.

A new, distinct religion was created in the Celtic world which combined Celtic religious beliefs with strong Roman influences. The Celtic religion became the Romano-Celtic religion. The new religion was also used by the Romans to encourage the conquered tribes to adopt Roman values and way of life.

The Druids, who were the guardians of the Celtic religion, were singled out by the Romans because of their opposition to the introduction of the new measures and in so doing represented a political threat. They had considerable sway over the native tribes, especially tribal leaders and their warriors and had the ability to unite them. For example, several Celtic tribes gathered together to celebrate ceremonies and rituals presided over by the Druids.

Druidism was one of few religions relentlessly persecuted by the Romans. The first stage was propaganda. Julius Caesar and other writers of the time described the rituals and practices of the Druids as barbaric while maintaining the priesthood was intelligent. It seems that the propaganda was successful. The Roman view of the Druids has been accepted even in the popular imagination today.

Julius Caesar had already taken measures against the Druids in Gaul during his conquest of the region in 52 BC. The Roman writer Lucan described the destruction of the sacred groves of Massilia in modern-day southern France. He described the Roman soldiers witnessing "the barbaric gods worshipped there had their altars heaped with hideous offerings and every tree around them sprinkled with human blood".

Sacred groves were the centre of worship for a village or community as their gods and goddesses were believed to dwell there. These sacred places were usually feared by the local population and only the Druids could enter them. Julius Caesar and his soldiers were horrified by such places and destroyed them.

Emperor Claudius was said to be tolerant of other religions with the exception of Druidism mainly because he found their practice of human sacrifice repugnant. Druidism was officially banned from the Empire, including the new Roman colony of Britain, by Claudius in AD 54. He followed in the footsteps of the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius in suppressing Druidism.

The Roman writer Pliny said Emperor Claudius ordered a Romanised Celt from the Vecontian family in Gaul be put to death in Rome when it was discovered he had brought an Anguinum Ovum, or serpent's egg, to a trial. The complaint was the talisman gave an unfair advantage to those who used it and so corrupted justice. Claudius was concerned about the influences of Druidism on Rome and its citizens.

Anguinum Ovum, which is also known as the serpent's egg or adder's stone, is thought to be a mystical stone or ball of glass which the Druids of Britain and Gaul wore on their person. The legend surrounding the serpent's egg was it could be used as lucky-charm which brought success during trials in courtrooms.

The Druids in Britain would have been fully aware of Rome's hostility and the actions the Emperors had taken against them in neighbouring Gaul. Their participation in inciting unrest among the Celtic tribes was understandable. They encouraged the rebellion of AD 60 against the despised Roman governor Caius Suetonius Paullinus who had been carrying out a military campaign in their heartland of Wales.

The Decline of the Druids in Britain - Their Customs and Ways - Part 1

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Scholars and historians agree the invasion of Britain by the Romans in AD 43 proved to be the nemesis of the powerful, priestly class of Druids in British Celtic society. The Romans regarded the Druids as one of the main threats to the invasion of Britain because they incited rebellions and cause unrest among the Celtic tribes. The Druids, who were rumoured to have originated in Wales, were all but destroyed on the island of Anglesey by the Roman legions under the command of Gaius Suetonius Plautinus in AD 60.

The Welsh island was targeted because it was considered to be the spiritual home of Druidism in Britain as well as one of the main centers of resistance in the early years of the occupation.

The Druids were the religious leaders and scholars among the Celtic tribes throughout Britain, Ireland and Europe. Historians believe they flourished in these areas during the Bronze and Iron ages or possibly earlier.

Little is known of their customs and ways because all of their knowledge was memorised and passed down by word of mouth or in poems. Ancient Greek and Roman writers have provided historians with the only source of information about Druidism.

Diodorus of Sicily, the Greek historian, was one of the earliest writers to refer to the Druids in his accounts of Gaul. He wrote, "Philosophers, as we may call them, and men learned in religious affairs are unusually honoured among them and are called by them Druids". Julius Caesar maintained "the system (of Druidism) is thought to have been devised in Britain, and brought thence into Gaul".

The name Druid is derived from the Welsh words for "knowing, or wise one, of the oak tree". The oak tree was the most sacred tree in the Celtic religion as it was thought to be a doorway to the Otherworld or spirit world.

The Celtic priests were the guardians of the spirit realm. They could communicate with the ancestors and numerous the Celtic deities who dwelt there. The Roman writer Strabo said of the Druids "thank-offerings should be rendered to the gods, they say, by the hands of men who are experienced in the nature of the divine, and who speak, as it were, the language of the gods".

Their considerable knowledge and wisdom in all matters relating to both the spiritual and natural world justified their position as the intellectual elite in Celtic society. The Celtic tribes revered and feared them.

The Celtic religion was based on a respect for the mysticism and spiritualism of nature. It was, in essence, a religion of farmers and those who worked on the land. Agriculture was the most important industry for Celtic families, especially in rural villages, and a vital part of Celtic society because it represented wealth and prestige. A good harvest and healthy livestock together with an abundance of the land could only be achieved by appeasing the gods and goddesses of nature. The Druids ensured the balance of nature was kept by virtue of ancient ceremonies and rituals and in so doing the prosperity of the Celtic tribes.

Religious ceremonies took place in simple, open shrines in the natural surroundings of forest clearings, hilltops, shores of lakes, rocks, springs, peat bogs and other places considered to be sacred. Stags and bulls were among the animals which were also revered as were some plants such as mistletoe.

Gifts and offerings made in ceremonies by the priests in sacred places were believed to ensure a harmonious relationship between the supernatural and natural world. The Roman historian Pliny noted "Having made preparation for sacrifice and a banquet beneath the trees, they bring their two white bulls, whose horns are bound then for the first time. Clad in a white robe, the priest ascends the tree and cuts the mistletoe with a golden sickle and it is received by others in a white cloak. Then they kill the victims, praying that God will render this gift of his propitious to those to whom he has granted it" (Historia Naturalis XVI 249).

The religious calendar was dominated by the cycles of the moon and sun. Pomponius Mela, a Roman writer, said in AD 43 the priests "profess to know the size and shape of the world, the movements of the heavens and of the stars, and the will of the Gods".

The changing position of the sun as it rose into the sky was celebrated by the Druids in large gatherings. The winter solstice, spring equinox, summer solstice and the autumn equinox were important dates in the Celtic agricultural calendar in Britain. Other important agricultural festivals such as Beltane in May and Samhuinn in October were also observed.

Diodorus described their supernatural qualities as seers and prophets "These men foretell the future by means of the flight or cries of birds and of the slaughter of sacred animals, and they have all the multitude subservient to them". They maintained a high status in society as advisers to tribal leaders because of their gift of prophecy.

The training was long and gruelling. Novices entered the priesthood voluntarily or were sent by their families to schools and colleges that were supervised by the Druids. Students were required to spend up to twenty years learning and eventually became proficient in a wide variety of skills.

The task of learning knowledge and wisdom was difficult because everything was memorised and passed down in words, usually in poems, rather than written down. The Greek historian, Diogenes Laertius noted their knowledge was passed down by uttering "their philosophy in riddles, bidding men to reverence the gods, to abstain from wrongdoing, and to practise courage".

According to Julius Caesar, "They consider it wrong to commit all these things to writing... Presumably they do this for two reasons; first, because they do not want the details of their training to become common knowledge; and secondly, because they feel that once these details were written down those undegoing training would be less inclined to develop their memory" (Gallic Wars).

The most important areas of their expertise included religion, law, science (especially maths and physics), philosophy, astronomy, and healing. Julius Caesar, "they hold various lectures and discussions on astronomy, on the extent and geographical distribution of the globe, on the different branches of natural philosophy, and on many problems connected with religion".

Archaeologists have uncovered evidence of the Druids as healers and physicians The grave the so-called "Druid of Colchester" is thought to be that of a priest or noble of the Catuvellauni tribe dating to between AD 40 and AD 60. The wooden burial chamber was discovered in the village of Stanway near Colchester in 1996.

The items found included "a cloak decorated with brooches and medical tools. Among the thirteen tools were things like a surgical saw, hooks, needles, scalpels, and sharp and blunt retractors. It is interesting to note that the kit looks more Roman than Celtic... Among the herbs, a cup was discovered with traces of Mugwort, a powerful herb the Celts knew very well. Druids may have smoked this herb to improve psychic powers and increase magical potency" (Ancient Origins).

Ancient authors noted one of their most important roles was that of judges and law-makers in Celtic society. Strabo, a Roman writer, wrote "The Druids are considered the most just of men, and on this account they are entrusted with the decision, not only of the private disputes but of the public disputes as well; so that, in former times, they even arbitrated cases of war and made the opponents stop when they were about to line up for battle, and the murder cases, in particular, were turned over to them for decision"(Geographica).

Julius Caesar said they punished "Any individual or community that refuses to abide by their decision is excluded from the sacrifices, which is held to be the most serious punishment possible". They seemed to have absolute power when trying cases and their judgements could not be reversed.

The Romans loathed the Celtic priests whom they thought of as sorcerers. Writers of the time confirmed Roman suspicions that human sacrifice was commonly used in rituals. The ancestors of the Romans had also taken part in human sacrifices but was considered barbaric by the time of the Empire.

Julius Caesar boasted he had witnessed numerous human sacrifices in rituals presided over by the Druids in Gaul during his conquest of the region."Others have effigies of great size interwoven with twigs, the limbs of which are filled up with living people which are set on fire from below, and the people are deprived of life surrounded by flames. It is judged that the punishment of those who participated in theft or brigandage or other crimes are more pleasing to the immortal gods; but when the supplies of this kind fail, they even go so low as to inflict punishment on the innocent"(Gallic Wars).

Diodorus of Sicily was one of the earliest writers to refer to the Druids among the Celtic tribes in Gaul. He also described how human sacrifice was used in their cruel rites. "They devote to death a human being and plunge a dagger into him in the region above the diaphragm, and when the stricken victim has fallen they read the future from the manner of his fall and from the twitching of his limbs, as well as from the gushing of the blood".

Archaeological evidence suggests there was some truth in the tales of Druids using human sacrifice as a means of purifying the land and so appease their gods and goddesses. Areas with water such as rivers, lakes, springs and peat bogs were considered to be especially sacred as water was thought to be a doorway to the Otherworld or spirit realm.

The most famous example of human sacrifice in Britain concerns the remains of the well-preserved body of a victim called "the Lindow man" II. The remains were found in a peat bog in Cheshire in England in 1984 and dated to about AD 60.

Archaeologists believe the victim was a young man of 25 years of age. It seems he was a noble because his fingernails were manicured and there were no scars on his body. The contents of his stomach contained mistletoe pollen which suggests that he was prepared as a victim before the ceremony. The Roman writer Pliny referred to Druids gathering mistletoe from Oak trees which was made into a juice and supposed to have healing qualities.

The evidence of the young man's ritualistic killing is that it was violent. A heavy blunt object was used to strike the back of his head twice, a twisted cord was used to strangle him and his throat was also cut. His body was naked except for a fox-fur armband. It seems he was placed or more likely thrown face down in a peat bog.

Most of the archaeological evidence suggests the Druids encouraged the Celtic tribes to make offerings in the form of weapons or other personal items in places they considered sacred. For example, the Battersea Shield was thought have thrown into river Thames in London possibly because of a victory in battle.

Swords, a fragment of a shield, two chains, iron wagon tyres, cauldrons, iron bars and animal bones were found in a peat bog in Llyn Cerrig Bach on the island of Anglesey in Wales. The Roman writer Tacitus refers to numerous Druids being present on the island when Gaius Suetonius Plautinus and his legions attacked in AD 60. Historians believe the items found were offering made in rituals performed by the Druids.

Julius Caesar and other writers of the time maintained human sacrifice was common in the Celtic religion. However modern scholars are of the opinion that human sacrifice was only performed by the Druids during times of crisis such as famines, invasion and war.

The ritual killing of the "Lindow Man” occurred between AD 60 and AD 61. It was a time of crisis and turmoil in Britain because the Celtic tribes were in open rebellion against their new Roman masters.

Damona - Celtic Goddess of Cattle and Healing

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Damona was the goddess of cattle and healing who was worshipped by the Celts in Gaul, specifically Burgundy.

Damona, meaning "Divine Cow", was often worshipped at healing springs either on her own or with a male consort, such as the god Borvo. The main centers of her worship were Bourbon-Lancy, Bourbonne-Les-Bains and Alise-Sainte-Reine in Gaul

The goddess was often associated with the cow and her worship demonstrates the importance of cattle and farming in Celtic culture.

Milk, butter, cheese and beef were a staple source of food and their hides used for clothing. Oxen were used for ploughing and in religious ceremonies Cows also represented wealth in Celtic culture and were an important part of the Celtic economy.

A sculpture of Damona found at Arnay-le-Duc shows her holding a snake which was a symbol of healing and regeneration. Other representations of Damona (Alise-Sainte-Raine) include the goddess with a crown of ears of corn, an association with fertility and health.

The Celtic god Abilus, the god of health, was worshipped with the goddess as his consort in Arnay-le-Duc (France) during the Bronze and Iron age. He was venerated by the sick and was associated with the snake by the Gallic tribe of the Sequaini. His worship continued into the era of the Roman Empire.

Damona's link to sleep was found on an inscription at a shrine in Bourbon-Lancy . Worshippers would sleep in her temple in the hope they would be cured after being visited by the goddess. The implication was Damona was also associated with prophecy.

The god Borvo, the god of hot springs, usually accompanied the goddess (Bourbonne-les-Bains) and the association of Damona with healing waters. The Roman god Apollo and Apollo Moritasgus (Alesia), were sometimes associated with her as was the god Abilus at Arnay-le-Duc. Links to Damona and the Irish goddess Boann have been made by modern scholars.

The gallic tribe of the Lingones were most closely associated the the worship of the goddess.

Jewellery designers today use depictions of Damona in their designs, such as engagement rings.