The Fall of the Druids in Roman Britain - the Claudian Invasion -  Part 2

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Julius Caesar briefly invaded Britain in 55 BC using the famous phrase "Veni, Vidi, Vici" or "I came, I saw, I conquered" to describe his victory. Strabo explained, "although the Romans could have held Britain, they scorned to do so, because they saw that there was nothing at all to fear from the Britons (for they are not strong enough to cross over and attack us)".

The Catuvellauni were among the tribes in southern Britain who formed alliances with Caesar during and after the invasion. The new opportunities for trade with Rome were also exploited. For the next one hundred years, ships laden with goods sailed across the English Channel to the coasts of the Roman province of Gaul.

Diodorus of Sicily described how "tin is brought in large quantities also from the island of Britain to the opposite Gaul, where it is taken by merchants on horses through the interior of Celtica both...to the city of Narbo, as it is called. This city is a colony of the Romans, and because of its convenient situation it possesses the finest market to be found in those regions".

Gold, silver, iron and other metals were exported. Grain and slaves were considered to be essential commodities by the Romans. According to Pliny hunting dogs from Britain, which were possibly Irish Wolf Hounds. were famous throughout the Roman world.

Olive oil, glass, jewellery, fine pottery and other Roman luxury goods also became fashionable. Imported Roman wine was particularly popular even among those who were anti-Roman.

Emperor Claudius ordered the invasion in the third year of his reign, in AD 43. An Emperor could secure his position and authority by adding a new province to the Empire after a military triumph. Britain's mineral wealth and other resources together with its importance as a source of grain for the Roman army also made the island an attractive proposition.

The Roman general Aulus Plautius was appointed as the new governor of Britain. He led a large invasion force across the English Channel and landed unopposed by the Celtic tribes at the mouth of the River Thames. The Roman legions then marched through southern England with little resistance. The Atrebate (Hampshire and Sussex) were among the tribes who were friendly towards Rome (Celtic tribes in Britain (BBC)).

Military forts and camps were established to ensure the continued loyalty of the native tribes. For example, Noviomagus Reginorum (modern-day Chichester) was built as a Roman fort shortly after the invasion and then became a Romano-British settlement when the legions withdrew.

Caractacus was the king of the Catuvellauni and the leader of the largest tribe in southern Britain. He resisted the invading forces as but was defeated at the River Medway. The king fled to his stronghold of Camulodunum (or modern day Colchester) which was then besieged by the Romans.

Emperor Claudius travelled to Camulodunum at the invitation of Aulus Plautius and led the final assault while riding on the back of an elephant. Caractacus fled the city in a chariot and rallied his forces in the west. The formal surrender of the eleven leaders of the Celtic tribes was accepted by Claudius before returning to Rome.

The tribal leaders in Britain were friendly or surrendered quickly to the Romans. The Celtic tribes in Britain, Gaul and the rest of Continental Europe were rarely successful in battle against a well-disciplined Roman army. Surrendering was a wise choice as they could retain their positions as tribal leaders and so keep their lands as allies of Rome. The punishment for resisting could be severe.

Caractacus was captured by the Roman governor Ostorious in AD 51 after being betrayed by Queen Cartimandua of the Brigantes, a Roman ally. The lands of Catuvellauni were confiscated and pacified and military bases were established. Caractacus and his family were taken in chains to Rome and displayed in a triumphal celebration of the conquest of Britain. Camulodunum, which was the capital of the Catuvellauni, became the first colonia or military town in Britain in AD 49.

The Celtic nobles belonged to the warrior class and were elected as leaders by their tribe. They proved their worthiness by victory in battle which in turn ensured the freedom and gratitude of their people. Their status was diminished when confronted with a seemingly unstoppable Roman invasion.

The Romans offered a means of prolonging their standing in society by bribing them with wealth and power as an ally. Adopting a Latin name, carrying out public works such as building temples or owning a villa in the country allowed them the opportunity to progress in the Roman world as they could be elected as priests or local officials. Demonstrations of their loyalty could eventually be rewarded with the prestige of becoming a Roman citizen.

For example, Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus became a client king in southern Britain under Emperor Claudius. His Roman name indicates he was given Roman citizenship. The sumptuous Roman style palace he built at Fishbourne in AD 65 was a display of the wealth and power he amassed in a short time after the invasion. He is also mentioned in the dedication stone of the temple built to the Roman deities Neptune and Minerva in Chichester.

Temples were introduced in Gaul and the Rhineland during the reign of Augustus and normally built over the sacred shrines of local cults. Worshipper made offerings and prayers to Celtic gods and goddesses who were paired with Roman deities.

A statue of a previously unknown British Celtic goddess was found in Hertfordshire in 2003. It is thought "Senua was probably an older Celtic goddess, worshipped at a spring on the site, who was then adopted and Romanised - twinned with their goddess Minerva - by the invaders. There is a direct parallel at Bath, where the Romans seamlessly absorbed the Celtic god Sulis, and a much older shrine, into their religion" (Guardian).

The Romans preferred a wealthy and loyal, secular priesthood who worshipped a combined Roman and Celtic religion in temples. The practice of worshipping Celtic deities in the open was abandoned and the Druids were eventually outlawed by the Romans. Temples were usually built on ancient sacred Celtic shrines and were of a distinct Romano-Celtic type rather than in classical Latin style ( Roman Britain).

Emperor Augustus (27 BC to AD14) banned Roman citizens from taking part in Druidic rituals in Gaul meaning that Druids could not become Roman citizens. Emperor Tiberius (AD 14 to AD 37) took further measures by outlawing Druidism throughout the Roman Empire. Writers of the time rarely mentioned Druids and human sacrifices among the Celtic tribes once they were assimilated into the Roman Empire.

Many historians believe the actions of Caesar and the succeeding Emperors were a genuine wish to remove barbaric practices from the Celtic religion and in so doing civilise and eventually assimilate the numerous Celtic tribes in Gaul, the Rhineland and Britain.

Historians believe the numerous local cults that venerated the deities in the Celtic religion were tolerated by Roman Emperors because they were important in the daily lives of the native tribes. However, the Emperors demanded the Celtic tribes demonstrate their loyalty to Rome in return for their tolerance.

A classical style temple was built between AD 49 and AD 60 and dedicated to Emperor Claudius in Camulodunum (modern day Colchester). Tacitus wrote "Seneca jibes that, instead of aspiring to divinity, Claudius should be content with the worship of barbarians. 'Is it not enough that he has a temple in Britain, that savages worship him and pray to him as a god'".

Tacitus and other Roman writers including Julius Caesar also believed many of the Celtic deities were more or less similar to Roman gods and goddesses. Caesar referred to the Celtic gods and goddesses by their Roman names so his readers could understand their characteristics.

A new, distinct religion was created in the Celtic world which combined Celtic religious beliefs with strong Roman influences. The Celtic religion became the Romano-Celtic religion. The new religion was also used by the Romans to encourage the conquered tribes to adopt Roman values and way of life.

The Druids, who were the guardians of the Celtic religion, were singled out by the Romans because of their opposition to the introduction of the new measures and in so doing represented a political threat. They had considerable sway over the native tribes, especially tribal leaders and their warriors and had the ability to unite them. For example, several Celtic tribes gathered together to celebrate ceremonies and rituals presided over by the Druids.

Druidism was one of few religions relentlessly persecuted by the Romans. The first stage was propaganda. Julius Caesar and other writers of the time described the rituals and practices of the Druids as barbaric while maintaining the priesthood was intelligent. It seems that the propaganda was successful. The Roman view of the Druids has been accepted even in the popular imagination today.

Julius Caesar had already taken measures against the Druids in Gaul during his conquest of the region in 52 BC. The Roman writer Lucan described the destruction of the sacred groves of Massilia in modern-day southern France. He described the Roman soldiers witnessing "the barbaric gods worshipped there had their altars heaped with hideous offerings and every tree around them sprinkled with human blood".

Sacred groves were the centre of worship for a village or community as their gods and goddesses were believed to dwell there. These sacred places were usually feared by the local population and only the Druids could enter them. Julius Caesar and his soldiers were horrified by such places and destroyed them.

Emperor Claudius was said to be tolerant of other religions with the exception of Druidism mainly because he found their practice of human sacrifice repugnant. Druidism was officially banned from the Empire, including the new Roman colony of Britain, by Claudius in AD 54. He followed in the footsteps of the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius in suppressing Druidism.

The Roman writer Pliny said Emperor Claudius ordered a Romanised Celt from the Vecontian family in Gaul be put to death in Rome when it was discovered he had brought an Anguinum Ovum, or serpent's egg, to a trial. The complaint was the talisman gave an unfair advantage to those who used it and so corrupted justice. Claudius was concerned about the influences of Druidism on Rome and its citizens.

Anguinum Ovum, which is also known as the serpent's egg or adder's stone, is thought to be a mystical stone or ball of glass which the Druids of Britain and Gaul wore on their person. The legend surrounding the serpent's egg was it could be used as lucky-charm which brought success during trials in courtrooms.

The Druids in Britain would have been fully aware of Rome's hostility and the actions the Emperors had taken against them in neighbouring Gaul. Their participation in inciting unrest among the Celtic tribes was understandable. They encouraged the rebellion of AD 60 against the despised Roman governor Caius Suetonius Paullinus who had been carrying out a military campaign in their heartland of Wales.

The Decline of the Druids in Britain - Their Customs and Ways - Part 1

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Scholars and historians agree the invasion of Britain by the Romans in AD 43 proved to be the nemesis of the powerful, priestly class of Druids in British Celtic society. The Romans regarded the Druids as one of the main threats to the invasion of Britain because they incited rebellions and cause unrest among the Celtic tribes. The Druids, who were rumoured to have originated in Wales, were all but destroyed on the island of Anglesey by the Roman legions under the command of Gaius Suetonius Plautinus in AD 60.

The Welsh island was targeted because it was considered to be the spiritual home of Druidism in Britain as well as one of the main centers of resistance in the early years of the occupation.

The Druids were the religious leaders and scholars among the Celtic tribes throughout Britain, Ireland and Europe. Historians believe they flourished in these areas during the Bronze and Iron ages or possibly earlier.

Little is known of their customs and ways because all of their knowledge was memorised and passed down by word of mouth or in poems. Ancient Greek and Roman writers have provided historians with the only source of information about Druidism.

Diodorus of Sicily, the Greek historian, was one of the earliest writers to refer to the Druids in his accounts of Gaul. He wrote, "Philosophers, as we may call them, and men learned in religious affairs are unusually honoured among them and are called by them Druids". Julius Caesar maintained "the system (of Druidism) is thought to have been devised in Britain, and brought thence into Gaul".

The name Druid is derived from the Welsh words for "knowing, or wise one, of the oak tree". The oak tree was the most sacred tree in the Celtic religion as it was thought to be a doorway to the Otherworld or spirit world.

The Celtic priests were the guardians of the spirit realm. They could communicate with the ancestors and numerous the Celtic deities who dwelt there. The Roman writer Strabo said of the Druids "thank-offerings should be rendered to the gods, they say, by the hands of men who are experienced in the nature of the divine, and who speak, as it were, the language of the gods".

Their considerable knowledge and wisdom in all matters relating to both the spiritual and natural world justified their position as the intellectual elite in Celtic society. The Celtic tribes revered and feared them.

The Celtic religion was based on a respect for the mysticism and spiritualism of nature. It was, in essence, a religion of farmers and those who worked on the land. Agriculture was the most important industry for Celtic families, especially in rural villages, and a vital part of Celtic society because it represented wealth and prestige. A good harvest and healthy livestock together with an abundance of the land could only be achieved by appeasing the gods and goddesses of nature. The Druids ensured the balance of nature was kept by virtue of ancient ceremonies and rituals and in so doing the prosperity of the Celtic tribes.

Religious ceremonies took place in simple, open shrines in the natural surroundings of forest clearings, hilltops, shores of lakes, rocks, springs, peat bogs and other places considered to be sacred. Stags and bulls were among the animals which were also revered as were some plants such as mistletoe.

Gifts and offerings made in ceremonies by the priests in sacred places were believed to ensure a harmonious relationship between the supernatural and natural world. The Roman historian Pliny noted "Having made preparation for sacrifice and a banquet beneath the trees, they bring their two white bulls, whose horns are bound then for the first time. Clad in a white robe, the priest ascends the tree and cuts the mistletoe with a golden sickle and it is received by others in a white cloak. Then they kill the victims, praying that God will render this gift of his propitious to those to whom he has granted it" (Historia Naturalis XVI 249).

The religious calendar was dominated by the cycles of the moon and sun. Pomponius Mela, a Roman writer, said in AD 43 the priests "profess to know the size and shape of the world, the movements of the heavens and of the stars, and the will of the Gods".

The changing position of the sun as it rose into the sky was celebrated by the Druids in large gatherings. The winter solstice, spring equinox, summer solstice and the autumn equinox were important dates in the Celtic agricultural calendar in Britain. Other important agricultural festivals such as Beltane in May and Samhuinn in October were also observed.

Diodorus described their supernatural qualities as seers and prophets "These men foretell the future by means of the flight or cries of birds and of the slaughter of sacred animals, and they have all the multitude subservient to them". They maintained a high status in society as advisers to tribal leaders because of their gift of prophecy.

The training was long and gruelling. Novices entered the priesthood voluntarily or were sent by their families to schools and colleges that were supervised by the Druids. Students were required to spend up to twenty years learning and eventually became proficient in a wide variety of skills.

The task of learning knowledge and wisdom was difficult because everything was memorised and passed down in words, usually in poems, rather than written down. The Greek historian, Diogenes Laertius noted their knowledge was passed down by uttering "their philosophy in riddles, bidding men to reverence the gods, to abstain from wrongdoing, and to practise courage".

According to Julius Caesar, "They consider it wrong to commit all these things to writing... Presumably they do this for two reasons; first, because they do not want the details of their training to become common knowledge; and secondly, because they feel that once these details were written down those undegoing training would be less inclined to develop their memory" (Gallic Wars).

The most important areas of their expertise included religion, law, science (especially maths and physics), philosophy, astronomy, and healing. Julius Caesar, "they hold various lectures and discussions on astronomy, on the extent and geographical distribution of the globe, on the different branches of natural philosophy, and on many problems connected with religion".

Archaeologists have uncovered evidence of the Druids as healers and physicians The grave the so-called "Druid of Colchester" is thought to be that of a priest or noble of the Catuvellauni tribe dating to between AD 40 and AD 60. The wooden burial chamber was discovered in the village of Stanway near Colchester in 1996.

The items found included "a cloak decorated with brooches and medical tools. Among the thirteen tools were things like a surgical saw, hooks, needles, scalpels, and sharp and blunt retractors. It is interesting to note that the kit looks more Roman than Celtic... Among the herbs, a cup was discovered with traces of Mugwort, a powerful herb the Celts knew very well. Druids may have smoked this herb to improve psychic powers and increase magical potency" (Ancient Origins).

Ancient authors noted one of their most important roles was that of judges and law-makers in Celtic society. Strabo, a Roman writer, wrote "The Druids are considered the most just of men, and on this account they are entrusted with the decision, not only of the private disputes but of the public disputes as well; so that, in former times, they even arbitrated cases of war and made the opponents stop when they were about to line up for battle, and the murder cases, in particular, were turned over to them for decision"(Geographica).

Julius Caesar said they punished "Any individual or community that refuses to abide by their decision is excluded from the sacrifices, which is held to be the most serious punishment possible". They seemed to have absolute power when trying cases and their judgements could not be reversed.

The Romans loathed the Celtic priests whom they thought of as sorcerers. Writers of the time confirmed Roman suspicions that human sacrifice was commonly used in rituals. The ancestors of the Romans had also taken part in human sacrifices but was considered barbaric by the time of the Empire.

Julius Caesar boasted he had witnessed numerous human sacrifices in rituals presided over by the Druids in Gaul during his conquest of the region."Others have effigies of great size interwoven with twigs, the limbs of which are filled up with living people which are set on fire from below, and the people are deprived of life surrounded by flames. It is judged that the punishment of those who participated in theft or brigandage or other crimes are more pleasing to the immortal gods; but when the supplies of this kind fail, they even go so low as to inflict punishment on the innocent"(Gallic Wars).

Diodorus of Sicily was one of the earliest writers to refer to the Druids among the Celtic tribes in Gaul. He also described how human sacrifice was used in their cruel rites. "They devote to death a human being and plunge a dagger into him in the region above the diaphragm, and when the stricken victim has fallen they read the future from the manner of his fall and from the twitching of his limbs, as well as from the gushing of the blood".

Archaeological evidence suggests there was some truth in the tales of Druids using human sacrifice as a means of purifying the land and so appease their gods and goddesses. Areas with water such as rivers, lakes, springs and peat bogs were considered to be especially sacred as water was thought to be a doorway to the Otherworld or spirit realm.

The most famous example of human sacrifice in Britain concerns the remains of the well-preserved body of a victim called "the Lindow man" II. The remains were found in a peat bog in Cheshire in England in 1984 and dated to about AD 60.

Archaeologists believe the victim was a young man of 25 years of age. It seems he was a noble because his fingernails were manicured and there were no scars on his body. The contents of his stomach contained mistletoe pollen which suggests that he was prepared as a victim before the ceremony. The Roman writer Pliny referred to Druids gathering mistletoe from Oak trees which was made into a juice and supposed to have healing qualities.

The evidence of the young man's ritualistic killing is that it was violent. A heavy blunt object was used to strike the back of his head twice, a twisted cord was used to strangle him and his throat was also cut. His body was naked except for a fox-fur armband. It seems he was placed or more likely thrown face down in a peat bog.

Most of the archaeological evidence suggests the Druids encouraged the Celtic tribes to make offerings in the form of weapons or other personal items in places they considered sacred. For example, the Battersea Shield was thought have thrown into river Thames in London possibly because of a victory in battle.

Swords, a fragment of a shield, two chains, iron wagon tyres, cauldrons, iron bars and animal bones were found in a peat bog in Llyn Cerrig Bach on the island of Anglesey in Wales. The Roman writer Tacitus refers to numerous Druids being present on the island when Gaius Suetonius Plautinus and his legions attacked in AD 60. Historians believe the items found were offering made in rituals performed by the Druids.

Julius Caesar and other writers of the time maintained human sacrifice was common in the Celtic religion. However modern scholars are of the opinion that human sacrifice was only performed by the Druids during times of crisis such as famines, invasion and war.

The ritual killing of the "Lindow Man” occurred between AD 60 and AD 61. It was a time of crisis and turmoil in Britain because the Celtic tribes were in open rebellion against their new Roman masters.