The Winter Solstice in the Celtic Religion

The druids and Celtic tribes celebrated the winter solstice as the waning of the dark half of the year because it was the shortest day and longest night of the year. The longer hours of sunlight after the winter solstice heralded the beginning of the light half of the year.  The winter solstice was also a magical time when Belenus, the Celtic god of the sun, died and was reborn as a powerful sky god. The moon goddess was also venerated as an enchanted deity who brought light into the darkness.

The Irish goddess, Caer Ibormeith, was one of the many moon goddesses who helped guide the two-day celebration of the winter solstice because the moon was present in the sky for the longest night of the year.

The Yew, Elder, Holly and Silver Fir played were used as symbols of death and rebirth in the ceremonies and rituals performed by the druids.

The winter solstice took place during the shortest day and longest night of the year. The celebration marked the end of the dark half of the year and the beginning of the light half of the year.

The spiritual meaning of the shortest day of the year was the death of the old sun god, Belenus. The rebirth of Belenus was welcomed and celebrated by the Celts when the hours of sunlight began to grow longer.

The festival began with rituals taking place on the eve of the winter solstice. The druids performed sacrifices to honour Belenus, as the old sun god as he sadly passed away. The death of Belenus took place at the end of the winter solstice.

The death of the old sun god was mourned by lighting a fire with the branches of Elder trees, the tree most associated with death in the Celtic religion. The holly tree and the Lynx were considered sacred to the old sun god, Belenus, during the dark half of the year.

The rebirth of Belenus was celebrated as a feast day as it marked the first day of the light half of the year. Belenus was born-again as the new sun god. The new sun god began his life-cycle with longer hours of sunlight during the day. The Celts and druids regarded this time as a new spiritual beginning filled with hope and joy. Feasts were prepared to celebrate the rebirth of Belenus.

Veneration of the moon goddess was important as the goddess brought light into the darkness of night. Aine was the young, beautiful goddess of the moon in Ireland as well as a deity of light, cattle, love and growth. Cerridwen was associated with the waning of the moon in Wales and normally portrayed as an old crone.

Epona was a goddess of horses in many Celtic nations. The goddess, Epona, was connected to the moon and night as a divine prophetess of dreams and magic.

The start of the light half of the year was a happy, magical time. The Celtic tribes gathered branches of red and white berries from plants such as mistletoe, yew, ivy and holly to decorate their homes.

Mistletoe was important because it was a magical healing plant associated with fertility, love and good fortune. The druids ritually gathered mistletoe which grew around Oak trees. They believed mistletoe harvested during the winter solstice contained the soul of the Oak tree until the spring.

Some tribes as, for example, the Treveri in the Rhineland collected boughs of Silver Fir to honour Artio, the goddess of fertility. Artio was venerated during the winter solstice in the hope goddess would help with births.

The Celts chanted and danced, sometimes into a frenzy, around campfires on the eve of the light half of the year. They awaited the rebirth of the sun god, Belenus, in a joyful and festive mood. The bull and the Oak tree were considered sacred to Belenus as a sun god of the light half of the year.

The feasts began when the rays of a born-again Belenus finally appeared in the sky. The Celtic tribes celebrated with an excess of food and wine. Presents were exchanged such as charms and amulets to ensure good fortune and abundance for the coming year.

Dianos was venerated as a Celtic god of the light half of the year among the Celts of Britain, Ireland, the Rhineland, Gaul and Iberia (or modern-day Spain and Portugal) during the Iron Age. The god, Dianos, means “Bright One” and “Light Half”.

He was portrayed as a two-headed god who guarded the entrance to the Land of the Dead in the Otherworld.  The attributes of Dianos in the mortal realm included the winter solstice, reincarnation, portals and lightning. The Oak tree was considered sacred to Dianos possibly because he was an enchanted god of portals to the Otherworld.

A famous sculpture of Dianos was found in a cemetery on Boa Island in Northern Ireland. Dianos was depicted as two male figures who faced in opposite directions and were connected by their hair ( Wikimedia Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:JanusFigureBoaIsland.jpg)

The strength of the traditions of the druids and the Celtic tribes of Britain, Ireland and Europe are still present today. The rituals and practices of the Celtic religion were popular because they offered followers a deep, spiritual experience. The celebration of the winter solstice represented a celebration of the mysticism and rebirth of nature. The winter solstice attracts a worldwide audience because the sheer beauty of nature still resembles a miracle of the gods.

For more information on the Celtic gods and goddesses of Britain, Ireland and Europe, please visit http://celtsandmyths.mzzhost.com/index.html

Bran - Bendigeidfran - God of Ravens and Prophecy in Celtic Mythology

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Bran ap Llyr was the legendary Welsh king of Britain. He was a popular god and well-known figure in the mythology of Wales during the Iron Age. Legends described him as a giant of semi-divine heritage as his father was Llyr, the god of the sea. Bran was eventually venerated as a god, a hero and a powerful king among the numerous tribes of Britain where he was associated with ravens as a god of prophecy.

Bran ap Llyr was a god of poetry, music, prophecy and sovereignty in Britain. He was known as Bendigeidfran in the ancient texts of the Mabinogion of Welsh mythology.

Bran and Bendigeidfran mean “Raven”, “Holy Raven” or “Blessed Crow”. Black Ravens came to symbolise the presence of Bran and were sacred to him.

Ravens were revered in the Celtic world as they were thought to be messengers between the mortal world and the world of the spirits or Otherworld.

Bran was portrayed as a giant of semi-divine heritage who possessed supernatural strength and abilities.

Llyr, the god of the sea, was the father of Bran and his siblings, Manawyddan and Branwen. Their mother was a mortal woman Penardim. Nisien and Evnissyen were described as their half-brothers or, in some accounts, their cousins.

The children of Llyr represented the powers of darkness in Welsh mythology. They were constantly at war with the children of the mother-goddess, Don, who represented the power of light.

Llyr was a god of the sun of the Coritani tribe in some of the older myths. He was venerated in the area known today as Leicester in England. Llyr married the sea goddess Iwerydd, meaning “Atlantic”, from a god-like race called the Tuatha Dé Danann in Ireland.

The offspring of Llyr and Iwerydd were Bran and Branwen. A second marriage took place between Llyr and a noblewoman called Penarddun from the Belgae tribe and a son called Manawyddan was born from the union.

The most famous legend about Bran ap Llyr began when he was the most powerful chieftain in Britain, or “Island of the Mighty”. Bran lived with his family at their home in Harlech on the coast of north-west Wales.

One day Bran and his brother, Manawyddan, saw a fleet of thirteen ships sailing swiftly across the sea towards Wales. He recognised Matholwch, the High King of Ireland, who held his shield upside down as a sign of peace as the ships entered the harbour.

Matholwch sailed to Wales to ask for Branwen's hand in marriage. The Irish king hoped the marriage would lead to a political alliance between Britain and Ireland. A son born to Branwen would be the future ruler of both islands.

Bran gave his blessing to the marriage. King Matholwch and Branwen were married in Aberffaw on the island of Anglesey. The wedding took place in a huge tent as Bran was too large to fit into an ordinary house.

Efnisien arrived home and learned of his sister's wedding. He was furious that his brother, Bran, excluded him from the meetings with Matholwch and allowed marriage to take place without him.

Branwen was one of the three most important goddesses of Britain which made the matter even more serious in Elfnisien's mind.

Bran's refusal to include Elfnisien in the negotiations was understandable. Efnisien was a well-known troublemaker with a fiery temper.

Bran gave Matholwch a herd of magnificent horses as a wedding gift. Elfnisien walked over to the stables and attacked all of the Irish king's horses in revenge for the insult caused by his brother, Bran.

Matholwch and the Irish were distressed by the attack on their horses and prepared to leave Harlech immediately.

Bran panicked and offered the Irish king more horses, a silver staff and a huge golden plate as an apology for Efnisien's crime. He could not order Efnisien's death because they were blood relatives.

Sadly Matholwch was still upset and continued with the preparations to leave Wales without Branwen. Bran then offered Matholwch his magical cauldron of rebirth which could bring dead warrior back to life.

Bran warned Matholwch the returning warriors would not only be deaf and mute but also would keep fighting.

Matholwch wished to own Bran's magical cauldron as it came from the Lake of Cauldron in Ireland. He was delighted with the gifts given by Bran and restored Branwen's good name by making her as his wife.

Branwen's arrival was met with jubilation by the people of Ireland as they were happy to see their new queen.

Matholwch and Branwen spent the first year of their marriage in wedded bliss. The couple soon welcomed a son whom they named Gwern. Gwern's birth was a symbol that the people of Britain and Ireland would one day be reunited.

The Irish nobles at court whispered in Matholwch's ear that she was unpopular as a foreign queen. They also reminded him of the earlier insult that was caused by Efnisien's crime.

Sadly Matholwch soon became disappointed with his new wife and rarely saw her. He decided to send their son Gwern to be fostered by a respected Irish family and banished Branwen to his kitchens far below the palace.

Branwen was forced to work long hours in the kitchens preparing food and cleaning dishes. The head cook slapped her every day for no reason.

One day Branwen found an injured starling and kept it as a pet. She taught the starling to speak and told the bird of her home and her family.

The starling was sent by Branwen to her brother, Bran, and told him of his sister's plight. Bran was furious when he learned of his sister's mistreatment.

He immediately summoned his army which sailed to Ireland. The warriors of his army used a dye made from alder trees to paint their faces red. It seemed to be the reason the alder tree was associated with Bran.

Bran left his only son Caradawg along with seven chieftains, who became known as the Seven Horseman, to guard Britain.

The fleet left Wales and sailed across the Celtic Sea. Bran was a giant and easily waded through the waters of the Celtic Sea with his huge club.

Bran and his army marched through Ireland towards King Matholwch. They found the crossing the River Liffey very difficult. Bran lay across the river so his men could travel over his back to the other side. The place where these mythical events took place is known today as Hurdle Ford and part of the city of Dublin.

News soon reached Matholwch of the arrival of Bran and his army on the coast of Ireland. The frightened Irish king attempted to quickly make peace with Bran.

Matholwch offered to stand aside and proposed that his young son, Gwern, be made the new king of Ireland as part of the peace negotiations. He also arranged for a great feasting hall to be built which was large enough for Bran to live in.

Bran agreed to the terms of the peace treaty proposed by Matholwch the Irish. The two warring sides celebrated with a great feast in the newly built hall.

Everything seemed to be going well until Efnisien became angry when his young nephew Gwern avoided him at the feast. Efnisien asked Matholwch if he may hug Gwern as they were kinsmen. Gwern walked towards Efnisien to greet him.

The joyous mood of the Irish at the feast turned to rage and fury when Efnisien grabbed the child and threw him into a huge fire. The poor boy died screaming as he was burned alive.

A ferocious battle took place between King Matholwch and the Irish warriors and Bran and his men.

Matholwch and the Irish were winning on the battlefield because the magic cauldron of rebirth brought their dead warriors back to life. Most of Bran's army were killed during the conflict and it seemed they had lost the battle against the enemy.

Efnisien realised his brother Bran was losing the battle and decided to sacrifice his own life to save Bran and the remaining Welsh warriors.

He hid among the dead bodies of the Irish warriors and was thrown into the magic cauldron by mistake. No living thing could be placed in the magic cauldron and it broke into four pieces when it exploded. Efnisien was killed by the explosion.

The battle continued on fairer terms until King Matholwch and all of his warriors died. Bran, Branwen and seven of his warriors were the only survivors from Britain. Neither side won because of the terrible carnage that happened during the battle.

Sadly Bran was mortally wounded by a poisoned spear thrown by an Irish warrior. He ordered his remaining men to cut off his head and told them to “bear it even unto the White Mount, in London, and bury it there, with the face towards France”. The “White Mount” is the place where the tower of London now stands.

Branwen and the seven surviving warriors returned to Britain. They arrived on the shore of Aber Alaw on the small island of Anglesey, off the north coast of Wales.

A terrible wave of sadness and grief swept across Branwen. She cried out “Oh Son of God, woe to me that I was born. Two fair islands have been laid waste because of me!”. Branwen died of a broken heart for causing so much death and destruction.

The seven warriors buried the body of the beautiful Branwen in a four-sided grave in Aber Alaw. The burial site of Branwen may be found in a place called Bedd Branwen, or “Branwen's grave” on the Island of Anglesey.

They journeyed on to Harlech and spent seven years with the goddess Rhiannon and her magical singing birds. The warriors then travelled to the magical Island of Gwales in Pembrokeshire. They remained on the magical island in a dream-like state for another eighty years

Bran's head possessed the ability to speak and was good company during the long trip to London.

The warriors finally reached Caer Lludd or modern-day London. They buried Bran's head on the site of the White Hill.

Bran's head was traditionally thought of as a talisman which protected Britain from a foreign invasion. Seven captive ravens are kept in the Tower of London because of the legend that Britain will fall if they fly away from the sacred place.

The magical ability of Bran's head to talk on its own symbolised the so-called “cult of the head” among the Celtic tribes in Britain, Ireland and Europe.

The Celts believed the soul was immortal and dwelt in the head of a human being. The soul continued to live in the head even when it was removed from the body. Heads were often taken as trophies by Celtic warriors during a battle and displayed with pride in a prominent place.

The importance of Bran's head represented the belief that the head was a talisman. It possessed the power of prophecy and fertility (meaning “regeneration”). It also reinforced the idea that Bran was a powerful god of prophecy.

Some historians believe Branwen was an earth goddess who represented the land meaning Britain. Bran relinquished the sovereignty of Britain to a foreign king, Matholowch. Bran also caused Britain to become defenceless when he gave the magical cauldron of rebirth to Matholwch.

Bran paid dearly for his errors of judgement because his sister, Branwen, committed suicide and he was mortally wounded. He redeemed himself to a certain extent as his severed head became a talisman of great power which protected Britain from invasion.

The name “Bran the Blessed”, or Bendigeid Vran, was another name Bran was commonly known by because he was the first king of Britain to introduce the Christian faith to the island.

Medieval legends described Bran "the Blessed King of Britain", “Bran the Blessed”, or Bendigeid Vran because he first brought Christianity to Britain.

Historical records said Bran and his family were taken by the Romans to Rome as hostages for his son, Caradawc. It was in Rome that Bran converted to Christianity and introduced the religion on his return to Britain. The approximate time is given as 58AD.

Bran was a major Celtic god in Britain as a god of prophecy and kingship. He was regarded as Britain's protector who willingly sacrificed himself to keep the island from invasion. His connection with ravens is still considered sacred even to this day because of the superstitions surrounding ravens in the Tower of London.

Korrigans – the Fairies of Brittany

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The Korrigans were the tiny female fairies of Brittany in north-west France. They were regarded as the smallest of the fabled “little people”. The Korrigans were particularly fond of sacred wells, fountains, rivers and springs where they could be seen combing their long, blond hair.

The fairies of Brittany were said to be only two or three inches (or five to seven centimetres) tall and surprisingly strong for their size. They were described as well proportioned, miniature women with long, flowing blond hair which they combed constantly.

A long white veil was worn around their bodies and tied in the middle. Some versions of fairy women said they could fly in the air on wasp-like wings.

A Korrigan took the shape of an old crone in daylight with red eyes, white hair and deeply wrinkled skin. At night it changed into beautiful, seductive woman.

Men were merely the tiny fairy's playthings as it could make any man fall hopelessly in love with it or destroy him at will. The men who accidentally came across the fairy women in remote woods were punished, sometimes severely. The Korrigans were known to have killed, married or take mortal men by force to the supernatural realm of the Otherworld.

The tiny fairies were fairly friendly towards people. Those who met a Korrigan were advised to be wary as they earned a reputation for being sensitive creatures and easily offended.

The Korrigans were semi-divine beings and so immortal. They possessed numerous supernatural powers as, for example, the ability to make themselves invisible or change their shape at will. Their magical abilities were renowned in local tradition as they could cast evil spells on people as well as foretell the future to those who sought them out.

People were most likely to meet Korrigans in the spring and summer time as they hibernated during the cold weather in winter. The little beings awoke from their deep sleep when the weather was warmer in the spring.

Springs, streams and wells were rumoured to be some of their favourite haunts and where they were often seen combing their long golden hair. Local tradition said the Korrigans guarded wells, fountains, rivers and other places near water which were sacred pagan sites of worship in the distant past.

Historians believe the Korrigans were remnants of an earlier pagan goddess of nature called Korrigan. Korrigan was venerated in Gaul, or modern day France. It is thought the cult of the goddess originated in Brittany and spread to modern day Jersey in the Channel Islands.

The goddess Korrigan was portrayed as a small, translucent deity associated with nature with a special connection to sacred places near water. Sacred shrines found near springs, fountains and wells were thought to be blessed by the goddess.

The Korrigans, or the Corrigans, were said to be the priestesses who attended to the goddess Korrigan and were also associated with areas of water. Some believe they were lost human souls and doomed to wander the earth after suffering a tragic death.

Historians are of the opinion the fairy women were echoes of druidesses from Brittany's pagan past. Their well known wanton and immoral desires were thought to be part of a religious rite that was performed by the priestesses of the cult of the goddess Korrigan.

Mullo - Celtic God of Healing and Mules in Mythology

Mullo - Celtic God of Healing and Mules in Mythology

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Mullo - Mars Mullo - Celtic God of Healing and Mules in Gaul

Mullo was a popular Celtic god of healing and mules in northern and north-western Gaul, or modern-day France. Followers of Mullo's cult associated the god with afflictions of the eye. Archaeological evidence suggests Mullo gained a high status as Mars Mullo in Gaul during the era of the Roman Empire.

Mullo may be translated as "mule", "hill" or "heap". The god was known as a deity of healing and mules including those who tended and worked with mules.

He became known across the Celtic world as Mars Mullo. Mars, the Roman god of war, was joined to the Celtic god Mullo as an important local and tribal deity. The Roman god Mars also changed into a god of healing because of Celtic influences. Mars Mullo was portrayed as a single god in Gaul during the Roman occupation.

Modern historians believe Mars Mullo was possibly the most widely venerated Romanised Celtic god in Amorica, or modern-day Brittany and eastern Normandy..

It has also been pointed out that a god of mules would not have been considered unusual as they were important as pack animals. Mules were held in high esteem because of their strength, endurance, sturdy nature and longevity.

The cult of Mars Mullo was very popular among the Celtic tribes in Amorica in northern and north-western Gaul. Armorica may be translated as "near the sea" because it was found on the coastal peninsula of modern-day Brittany and eastern Normandy in France.

Amorica was the last area in Gaul to fall to Julius Caesar and was never fully Romanised. The Redones, the Veneti and other Celtic tribes in the region preferred to keep their native customs and culture during the Roman occupation.

The Redones was the tribe most closely associated with Mars Mullo and venerated him as an important tribal god. They lived on eastern coasts of Brittany, nearest the English Channel. The Roman army respected them as they earned a reputation for being exceptionally skilled horsemen.

The Redones were one of the earliest tribes in the Gaul to mint their own coins. Their long association with horses was celebrated on coins that showed the body of a man with the head of a horse. The veneration of a mule god followed in the same tradition as mules are the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse.

The tribe's ancient capital was Condate Riedonum and now known as the city of Rennes in Brittany. Five inscriptions dedicated to Mars Mullo were unearthed in Rennes dating back to the second century. The inscriptions were honorary statue inscriptions and mentioned important men of the city including Titus Flavius Postuminus.

The Romans also considered Mars Mullo to be an important Celtic god. Evidence has been found of a flamen, or an official Roman priest, called Titus Flavius Postuminus who was appointed the official priest of Mullo's cult. The flamen devoted his time and duties to the worship of just one deity.

The presence of the flamen suggests the temple of Mars Mullo was the official center of the god's cult in the region and Mars Mullo was the official god and protector of Rennes. Rennes became a thriving city during the Roman occupation. Mullo's cult would have been the responsibility of the city's wealthier citizens in Rennes and other areas of Gaul. For example, shrines were built in Gaul to Mullo as a regional god and were the responsibility of public officials.

The high status of Mars Mullo was also confirmed when archaeologists found two inscriptions in Rennes linking the god to the Imperial Cult of the Roman Emperors.

Some historians believe Mars Mullo may also have been the official god of Nantes in Brittany as an inscription to the god was found and again linked to the Imperial Cult.

The inscription reads "To the Augustus, to Mars Mullo, Agedovirus, son of Moricus, raised a (or the) statue (of the god) with his temple and all his ornaments, in his name and in the name of his daughter Toutilla. He has fulfilled his wish with good heart and with good reason". It seems an aristocrat from a Romanised family in Gaul was responsible for the dedication to Mars Mullo in Nantes.

The native tribe known as the Namnetes venerated Mars Mullo in and around the area known today as Nantes. The Namnetes were neighbours of the Redones.

Important circular temples were also dedicated to Mars Mullo on the top of a hill in Provenchères and in Craon in the Mayenne in the north-west of France.

Pilgrims visited a healing shrine to Mars Mullo at Allonnes in the hope the god would cure them. A number of offerings were made to Mars Mullo in the sanctuary in the form of coins and sculptures of afflicted limbs, with diseases of the eye being most prominent.

The large temple complex dedicated to the cult of Mars Mullo in Allonnes was built as new a temple during the era of the Roman Empire. It was most likely built over an ancient pagan shrine. (Le Mans).

One of the inscriptions was dedicated to Mars Mullo by a public slave called Crescens. The inscription said, "To Auguste and Mars Mullo Crescens, public slave (has high this monument) of his good will and with good reason". Mars Mullo was seemed to be a major Celtic god as he was linked to the Imperial cult at Rennes, Allonnes and other areas in Gaul because the name of Emperor Augustus was mentioned.

The evidence suggested Mullo was a major Celtic god in Brittany and Normandy both before and after the Roman occupation of Gaul, or modern-day France. The god's importance was recognised by the Romans when Mullo became linked with Mars, one of the main Roman gods. Mars Mullo's high status in Gaul was confirmed as he was linked with the official Imperial Cult of Rome.

Fall of the Druids in Britain - the Island of Anglesey in Wales - Part 3

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Aulus Plautius was recalled to Rome by the Emperor Claudius in AD 47, possibly because of his failure to capture Caractacus, the rebel leader. The new governor Publius Ostorius Scapula made a concerted effort to conquer the native tribes who were resisting the occupation in the north and west. The defiance of the tribes in Wales threatened the stability of the whole Roman province.

Caractacus and his warriors escaped to Wales following the capture of Camulodunum (or Colchester) in AD 43. The powerful, warlike tribe of the Silures in south Wales adopted Caractacus as their leader. The Deceangli and the Ordovices in north Wales joined his rallying calls to fight the Roman oppressors. Caractacus became known as the Caradog among his supporters and the Druids proclaimed him as a hero.

Ostorius began his term in office by defending Roman territory near Wales which had been attacked by Caractacus and his army. The guerrilla tactics used by the rebels against the Romans were so successful that it slowed the pace of the occupation by Ostorius and succeeding Roman governors for more than a decade.

The native tribes of Gaul, Britain and the Rhineland learned ambushes, surprise attacks, and fighting in rough, hostile terrain which they knew well were the most effective ways of resisting the Romans. Open battles usually ended in defeat. The rough, mountainous terrain of Wales provided the rebels with excellent cover from which to successfully launch raids.

It is certain Caractacus and his followers met the Druids during his time in Wales. Anglesey, which was known as the island of Mona by the Romans, is a small island off the coast of north Wales and was the home of the Druidism throughout the Iron Age. It was also a place of where the Celtic priests welcomed fugitives from distant tribes who had escaped the harshness of Roman rule. Anti-Roman sentiment was spread from Anglesey to the native tribes throughout Britain. Druids were forbidden from taking part in warfare according to Julius Caesar but they could encourage it.

A close relationship existed between the Druids, the tribal chieftains and their warriors because of their teachings the human soul was immortal and could not be destroyed.

The Celts that believed the soul passed from the mortal world upon death to the Otherworld, or the world of the dead. A birth in the mortal world similarly caused a death in the Otherworld and a soul returned to the mortal world.

Julius Caesar noted the Celts belief in the immortal soul was one of the reasons their warriors were fearless in battle. Personal belongings were normally buried during the funeral of a warrior so the time he spent the after-life was pleasant.

The first signs of hostility came in AD 49 when the Roman general attacked and devastated the lands of the Deceangli in north Wales as part of a military offensive to bring the north and west of Britain under Roman control. The campaign was delayed when Ostorius received news of an uprising of the client kingdoms of the Iceni, the Brigantes and other native tribes. He rushed to East Anglia to quell the rebellion.

The Roman writer Tacitus said there had been unrest because Ostorius had taken the unusual and unpopular step of disarming the tribes south and east of the rivers Trent and Severn. The decision was based a suspicion that anti-Roman sentiment was growing among the Britons encouraged by the Druids and the resistance in Wales. The measure was aimed at preventing rebellion among the native people in Roman controlled territory while an ongoing offensive was taking place against Caractacus and his army in Wales.

Under Roman law no person could carry arms except for officers and soldiers. Hunting swords and knives were exempt. However bearing arms was an essential part of a warrior's lifestyle and was against Celtic custom. The introduction of martial law demonstrated the Roman's distrust of the native population and ignorance of their ways and customs.

Weapons were reluctantly handed over in an act of submission by the tribes. Search parties were sent to farms and villages to check for hidden weapons. Historians believe the Romans used the law to deliberately instill fear among the local population. Protests were dealt with harshly by Roman soldiers with beatings of individuals and families. Anti-Roman factions within the Iceni, Brigantes and other tribes encouraged their kinsmen to rebel.

The short-lived uprising was crushed quickly by the Romans. Some of the leaders were executed while others were pardoned according to Tacitus. The measures taken by the Ostorius to prevent rebellion had actually caused an anti-Roman reaction. The revolt of the Iceni surprised the Romans.

Ostorius and his legions defeated Caratacus and his forces during a decisive battle in Wales in AD 51. Caratacus was captured some months later when Queen Cartimandua of the Brigantes handed the rebel leader over to Roman authorities.

The Silures continued fighting after their leader was taken prisoner and Ostorius died in AD 52 from illness while fighting them in south-Wales. The fourth Roman governor Quintus Veranius Nepos defeated the Silures in AD 58 and the region was pacified with the building of forts and roads.

Gaius Suetonius Paulinus became governor of Britain in AD 58 following the death of Quintus Veranius. The progress of the invasion in Wales had been slow because the Welsh tribes were successful in keeping the Roman at bay. The Island of Anglesey was targeted by Paulinus because it became a symbol of national and religious resistance to the Roman occupation. The Druids welcomed the rebels and the island acted as a haven for those fleeing Roman rule. Further rebellions threatened the expansion of the Empire.

Paulinus reasoned an attack on Druids last stronghold on the island of Anglesey in Wales was necessary. It would help crush the rebellion in the north, reduce their numbers and demoralise the remaining Celtic priests. Druidism would be pushed underground and eventually die out in the outermost areas.

The Druids on Anglesey also controlled trade with neighbouring Ireland and the gold merchants brought with them from across the Celtic sea. Removing the Druids by force would further the Roman's ambition of controlling the mineral wealth of the province of Britannia.

Paulinus and his legions arrived on the shores of Anglesey in AD 60. The Romans witnessed the frightening spectacle of thousands of tribesmen gathered on the shore beating their shields and shouting. A nearby circle of Druids lifted their hands to heaven, praying to their gods for victory and cursed the Romans with dark magic and spells.

Tacitus noted there were women were "flitting between the ranks. In the style of Furies, in robes of deathly black and with dishevelled hair, they brandished their torches". Some believe the "women" may have been the wives, mothers and sisters of the warriors. Others think they were Celtic priestesses, or Druidesses, belonging to the cult of a god, perhaps even the Celtic sun god Mabon of Wales.

Paulinus rode among his shocked soldiers, encouraging them to wage war on the enemy. The Romans rallied and proceeded to slaughter every man, woman and child on the battlefield. The surviving Druids and their followers were thrown into their sacred groves among oak trees and burned alive. Tacitus said Paulinus decided "the next step was to install a garrison among the conquered population, and to demolish the groves consecrated to their savage cults".

Historians agree that Druidism in Britain was dealt a fatal blow following the attack by the Romans on their stronghold on the island of Anglesey. Most of the surviving members escaped to Ireland. The remainder seem to have sought refuge among the tribes in Scotland who were known to be anti-Roman.

The accounts of the time indicate there were Druids were living among the native tribes in the client kingdoms in England. For example, sacrifices that were made during the revolt of Boudicca and the Iceni in AD 60/61 could only have been performed by Druids.

News reached Paulinus a rebellion was underway in East Anglia after the successful attack on Anglesey. He and his legions rushed from Wales to confront the legendary Queen Boudicca and her army in southern England.

The Fall of the Druids in Roman Britain - the Claudian Invasion -  Part 2

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Julius Caesar briefly invaded Britain in 55 BC using the famous phrase "Veni, Vidi, Vici" or "I came, I saw, I conquered" to describe his victory. Strabo explained, "although the Romans could have held Britain, they scorned to do so, because they saw that there was nothing at all to fear from the Britons (for they are not strong enough to cross over and attack us)".

The Catuvellauni were among the tribes in southern Britain who formed alliances with Caesar during and after the invasion. The new opportunities for trade with Rome were also exploited. For the next one hundred years, ships laden with goods sailed across the English Channel to the coasts of the Roman province of Gaul.

Diodorus of Sicily described how "tin is brought in large quantities also from the island of Britain to the opposite Gaul, where it is taken by merchants on horses through the interior of Celtica both...to the city of Narbo, as it is called. This city is a colony of the Romans, and because of its convenient situation it possesses the finest market to be found in those regions".

Gold, silver, iron and other metals were exported. Grain and slaves were considered to be essential commodities by the Romans. According to Pliny hunting dogs from Britain, which were possibly Irish Wolf Hounds. were famous throughout the Roman world.

Olive oil, glass, jewellery, fine pottery and other Roman luxury goods also became fashionable. Imported Roman wine was particularly popular even among those who were anti-Roman.

Emperor Claudius ordered the invasion in the third year of his reign, in AD 43. An Emperor could secure his position and authority by adding a new province to the Empire after a military triumph. Britain's mineral wealth and other resources together with its importance as a source of grain for the Roman army also made the island an attractive proposition.

The Roman general Aulus Plautius was appointed as the new governor of Britain. He led a large invasion force across the English Channel and landed unopposed by the Celtic tribes at the mouth of the River Thames. The Roman legions then marched through southern England with little resistance. The Atrebate (Hampshire and Sussex) were among the tribes who were friendly towards Rome (Celtic tribes in Britain (BBC)).

Military forts and camps were established to ensure the continued loyalty of the native tribes. For example, Noviomagus Reginorum (modern-day Chichester) was built as a Roman fort shortly after the invasion and then became a Romano-British settlement when the legions withdrew.

Caractacus was the king of the Catuvellauni and the leader of the largest tribe in southern Britain. He resisted the invading forces as but was defeated at the River Medway. The king fled to his stronghold of Camulodunum (or modern day Colchester) which was then besieged by the Romans.

Emperor Claudius travelled to Camulodunum at the invitation of Aulus Plautius and led the final assault while riding on the back of an elephant. Caractacus fled the city in a chariot and rallied his forces in the west. The formal surrender of the eleven leaders of the Celtic tribes was accepted by Claudius before returning to Rome.

The tribal leaders in Britain were friendly or surrendered quickly to the Romans. The Celtic tribes in Britain, Gaul and the rest of Continental Europe were rarely successful in battle against a well-disciplined Roman army. Surrendering was a wise choice as they could retain their positions as tribal leaders and so keep their lands as allies of Rome. The punishment for resisting could be severe.

Caractacus was captured by the Roman governor Ostorious in AD 51 after being betrayed by Queen Cartimandua of the Brigantes, a Roman ally. The lands of Catuvellauni were confiscated and pacified and military bases were established. Caractacus and his family were taken in chains to Rome and displayed in a triumphal celebration of the conquest of Britain. Camulodunum, which was the capital of the Catuvellauni, became the first colonia or military town in Britain in AD 49.

The Celtic nobles belonged to the warrior class and were elected as leaders by their tribe. They proved their worthiness by victory in battle which in turn ensured the freedom and gratitude of their people. Their status was diminished when confronted with a seemingly unstoppable Roman invasion.

The Romans offered a means of prolonging their standing in society by bribing them with wealth and power as an ally. Adopting a Latin name, carrying out public works such as building temples or owning a villa in the country allowed them the opportunity to progress in the Roman world as they could be elected as priests or local officials. Demonstrations of their loyalty could eventually be rewarded with the prestige of becoming a Roman citizen.

For example, Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus became a client king in southern Britain under Emperor Claudius. His Roman name indicates he was given Roman citizenship. The sumptuous Roman style palace he built at Fishbourne in AD 65 was a display of the wealth and power he amassed in a short time after the invasion. He is also mentioned in the dedication stone of the temple built to the Roman deities Neptune and Minerva in Chichester.

Temples were introduced in Gaul and the Rhineland during the reign of Augustus and normally built over the sacred shrines of local cults. Worshipper made offerings and prayers to Celtic gods and goddesses who were paired with Roman deities.

A statue of a previously unknown British Celtic goddess was found in Hertfordshire in 2003. It is thought "Senua was probably an older Celtic goddess, worshipped at a spring on the site, who was then adopted and Romanised - twinned with their goddess Minerva - by the invaders. There is a direct parallel at Bath, where the Romans seamlessly absorbed the Celtic god Sulis, and a much older shrine, into their religion" (Guardian).

The Romans preferred a wealthy and loyal, secular priesthood who worshipped a combined Roman and Celtic religion in temples. The practice of worshipping Celtic deities in the open was abandoned and the Druids were eventually outlawed by the Romans. Temples were usually built on ancient sacred Celtic shrines and were of a distinct Romano-Celtic type rather than in classical Latin style ( Roman Britain).

Emperor Augustus (27 BC to AD14) banned Roman citizens from taking part in Druidic rituals in Gaul meaning that Druids could not become Roman citizens. Emperor Tiberius (AD 14 to AD 37) took further measures by outlawing Druidism throughout the Roman Empire. Writers of the time rarely mentioned Druids and human sacrifices among the Celtic tribes once they were assimilated into the Roman Empire.

Many historians believe the actions of Caesar and the succeeding Emperors were a genuine wish to remove barbaric practices from the Celtic religion and in so doing civilise and eventually assimilate the numerous Celtic tribes in Gaul, the Rhineland and Britain.

Historians believe the numerous local cults that venerated the deities in the Celtic religion were tolerated by Roman Emperors because they were important in the daily lives of the native tribes. However, the Emperors demanded the Celtic tribes demonstrate their loyalty to Rome in return for their tolerance.

A classical style temple was built between AD 49 and AD 60 and dedicated to Emperor Claudius in Camulodunum (modern day Colchester). Tacitus wrote "Seneca jibes that, instead of aspiring to divinity, Claudius should be content with the worship of barbarians. 'Is it not enough that he has a temple in Britain, that savages worship him and pray to him as a god'".

Tacitus and other Roman writers including Julius Caesar also believed many of the Celtic deities were more or less similar to Roman gods and goddesses. Caesar referred to the Celtic gods and goddesses by their Roman names so his readers could understand their characteristics.

A new, distinct religion was created in the Celtic world which combined Celtic religious beliefs with strong Roman influences. The Celtic religion became the Romano-Celtic religion. The new religion was also used by the Romans to encourage the conquered tribes to adopt Roman values and way of life.

The Druids, who were the guardians of the Celtic religion, were singled out by the Romans because of their opposition to the introduction of the new measures and in so doing represented a political threat. They had considerable sway over the native tribes, especially tribal leaders and their warriors and had the ability to unite them. For example, several Celtic tribes gathered together to celebrate ceremonies and rituals presided over by the Druids.

Druidism was one of few religions relentlessly persecuted by the Romans. The first stage was propaganda. Julius Caesar and other writers of the time described the rituals and practices of the Druids as barbaric while maintaining the priesthood was intelligent. It seems that the propaganda was successful. The Roman view of the Druids has been accepted even in the popular imagination today.

Julius Caesar had already taken measures against the Druids in Gaul during his conquest of the region in 52 BC. The Roman writer Lucan described the destruction of the sacred groves of Massilia in modern-day southern France. He described the Roman soldiers witnessing "the barbaric gods worshipped there had their altars heaped with hideous offerings and every tree around them sprinkled with human blood".

Sacred groves were the centre of worship for a village or community as their gods and goddesses were believed to dwell there. These sacred places were usually feared by the local population and only the Druids could enter them. Julius Caesar and his soldiers were horrified by such places and destroyed them.

Emperor Claudius was said to be tolerant of other religions with the exception of Druidism mainly because he found their practice of human sacrifice repugnant. Druidism was officially banned from the Empire, including the new Roman colony of Britain, by Claudius in AD 54. He followed in the footsteps of the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius in suppressing Druidism.

The Roman writer Pliny said Emperor Claudius ordered a Romanised Celt from the Vecontian family in Gaul be put to death in Rome when it was discovered he had brought an Anguinum Ovum, or serpent's egg, to a trial. The complaint was the talisman gave an unfair advantage to those who used it and so corrupted justice. Claudius was concerned about the influences of Druidism on Rome and its citizens.

Anguinum Ovum, which is also known as the serpent's egg or adder's stone, is thought to be a mystical stone or ball of glass which the Druids of Britain and Gaul wore on their person. The legend surrounding the serpent's egg was it could be used as lucky-charm which brought success during trials in courtrooms.

The Druids in Britain would have been fully aware of Rome's hostility and the actions the Emperors had taken against them in neighbouring Gaul. Their participation in inciting unrest among the Celtic tribes was understandable. They encouraged the rebellion of AD 60 against the despised Roman governor Caius Suetonius Paullinus who had been carrying out a military campaign in their heartland of Wales.